Reddit reviews Philosophy Between the Lines: The Lost History of Esoteric Writing
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Man that is a tall order! I'd first pick out an era (ancient, medieval, or modern) and go from there.
Going in chronological order, Penguin has a pretty great book of Pre-Socratic philosophy:
https://www.amazon.com/Early-Greek-Philosophy-Penguin-Classics/dp/0140448152
The only problem is that the works are fairly fragmentary, sometimes even sentences are cut in half. AFAIK we don't have a coherent book of Western philosophy until Plato.
The gang is doing The Republic right now, which is about as political a work as you can get. It's worth digging into unconventional interpretations of the book, I really enjoyed this as a guide to thinking about Plato and others without giving you a specific reading:
https://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Between-Lines-History-Esoteric/dp/022647917X
I haven't read Aristotle but his Politics and Nichomachean Ethics show up on a lot of reading lists.
It's sort of a post-Socratic pre-Socratic book, but I really enjoyed Lucretius' De Natura Rerum. Basically he puts his own spin on the philosophy of Epicurus and renders it in Latin poetry. Roman philosophers are more about sharing life wisdom than doing rigorous logic, but you might check out Cicero and Seneca on the earlier side and Boethius and Marcus Aurelius on the later side.
Medieval philosophy basically equates to religious philosophy. You mentioned Augustine and Aquinas, also check out Maimonides ("the Jewish Aquinas"). I haven't studied these guys too closely.
Modern political philosophy starts with Machiavelli and runs through Locke, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Burke, Mill, and Marx. On the epistemology side there's Descartes, Hume, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer. Not to spoil anything for you, but a popular interpretation is that Marx and Nietzsche basically killed the entire Enlightenment project. In any event it definitely helps to have a grounding in both ancient and modern philosophy before tackling Nietzsche so that you know what he's talking about and responding to.
Oh yeah and Hobbes wrote a sequel to Leviathan called Behemoth where he analyzed the English Civil War using his political principles. Wasn't as popular as the original though!